Historical Papyrus:
 

Our English word "paper", is derived from the word "papyrus", an Egyptian word that originally meant "that which belongs to the house" (the bureaucracy of ancient Egypt). At about the same time as the ancient Egyptians moved from prehistory to history by developing a written language, they discovered the need for a medium other than stone to transcribe upon. They found this in their papyrus plant, a triangular reed which symbolized ancient lower Egypt.  It was light, strong, thin, durable and easy to carry, and for thousands of years, there was nothing better for the purpose of writing. The earliest extant documented papyrus comes from Egypt's 1st Dynasty, but we believe it may have been used as early as 4,000 BC. It's use continued until about the 11th century AD. 

Besides its use for producing a medium for writing purposes, papyrus was also used for mattresses on beds, for building chairs, tables, and other furniture as well as for mats, baskets, boxes, sandals, utensils, rope and boats. Furthermore, the papyrus root was a source of food, medicine and perfume.

Papyrus was, and continues today to be made from the papyrus reed that grows in freshwater marshes along the river Nile, though today this growth is rare and controlled. Technically, it is Cyperus papyrus, a part of the sedge family. The plant grows to a height of about ten feet. After harvesting, the outer fibers are peeled away and the core of the stalk and sliced into very thin strips that are as broad as possible. The best of these strips, from the perspective of quality, comes from the center. Progressively, the quality of the papyrus strips decline as the strips are taken further from the center of the yellowish-white pith.

These strips are next soaked in water to remove the sugar content. Next, the strips are pounded and the water drained away, after which they are placed side by side, overlapping slightly. A second set of strips are placed at right angles to the first, again overlapping slightly. Next, this raw papyrus sheet is pounded once again, and left under a heavy weight (usually a stone slab) to dry for approximately six days. The remaining sugar within this concoction seals the strips together. Finally, after drying the surface of the sheet is polished to a smooth finish by rubbing (for example, with a shell or a piece of smooth ivory). Though during various periods of Egyptian history, this process could be slightly different, some papyrus continues to be made in a similar manner even today, for artistic purposes. For example, Pliny, during the Greek period, describes the process somewhat differently and included information on the various grades of Papyrus:

For practical purposes, the papyrus was limited to a standard size running 47 cm in length at the most (29-33 cm on the average), and 22 cm in width, though by no means was this always so, particularly over Egypt's long history. For longer documents, these pages were joined to create a papyrus roll (scroll). In fact, papyrus sheets were usually not sold individually, but in rolls (of about 20 sheets), with the fibers running in the same direction, except for the end sheets, which were reversed in order to add stringth.   However, in later periods, we also find papyrus books, called codex, which finally triumphed over the roll.

Just like there are many different kinds and qualities of paper today, the same was true for papyrus. Each type was used for a different purpose. Very cheaply made coarse papyrus was used by merchants to wrap items. The finest and most expensive varieties were reserved for religious or literary works. Quality depended upon a number of factors. Where the papyrus plants were grown, the age of the plants, the season when they were harvested, and most importantly, the layer of pith used in manufacture were all factors that affected the quality of the finished product. The finest papyrus was made using the innermost pith layers and was said to have come from the Delta region.

A typical roll was usually constructed of papyrus sheets of varying quality. The best sheets would be used for its ends, since they received the most wear and tear, and lesser quality sheets for its inner sections. To add additional strength and help prevent fraying, at the end margins, a strip of papyrus would be glued along the ends of the roll. In some cases, each end of the scroll would be wound around a stick (called an umbicus) which had attached cords to keep the roll from unraveling.

The various varieties and sizes of papyrus were often named in honor of emperors or officials. This information, particularly during the Roman and Byzantine periods, was written on the first sheet of a roll and was called a protocol. Additionally, the protocol often included the date and place of manufacture of the papyrus. Generally, the protocol would be cut off before using the roll. However, for legal documents, this practice was forbidden by the Laws of Justinian. The practice of adding a protocol to a finished papyrus roll continued into Islamic times.

Usually, the ancient Egyptians and others only wrote on one side of the papyrus, with the sheet oriented so that the fibers ran horizontally (recto). Rarely was there actually graphics applied to papyrus, particularly outside ancient religious matter.

Egyptian rulers realizing the importance of Papyrus, made its production a state monopoly, and guarded the secret of Papyrus jealously. Soon, Egyptians were even exporting their papyrus "paper", though outside of Egypt, not much of it has survived. This is due to the climate of Egypt and a few parts of Mesopotamia, where the dry climate is conducive to such preservation. However, Papyri have also been found in Asia and Europe. Few fragments of papyri from the classic period have been found in Greece, though dozens of drawings of rolls and papyri appear on vases of the same period.

 Of course, there was a concentration of papyrus in the debris of ancient towns and the necropolises of Egypt. In the external history of the discoveries the most noteworthy feature is that so many of the papyri have been dug up with the spade from Egyptian rubbish-heaps. The fact that so many of the papryi are found among the dust-heaps of ancient cities is a valuable indication of their general significance. The multitude of papyri from the Fayoum and a few other locations, do not, as was at first supposed, but simply the everyday trash of ancient civilization.

Furthermore, in Egypt, papyrus was recycled in the form of mummy cartonnage. In the mummification process, the ancient Egyptians first prepared the corpses and wrapped them in linen. Then they covered the deceased with pieces of cartonnage covered with plaster and painted in bright colors. This cartonnage, at least in certain periods of Egyptian history, consisted of several layers of papyrus usually discarded by administrative offices.

Actually, the largest percentage of papyrus that has survived was written during the Greco-Roman Period of Egyptian history and afterwards, from about the late fourth century BC until the middle of the seventh century AD. Most of this text is written in Greek. After the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great, almost all administration of Egypt was largely conducted in Greek, and this remained so even after the Romans took control of Egypt. In fact, Greek continued to be used for this administrative purposes even after the Arab conquest in 642 AD. However, there also remains considerable text written in Coptic, Latin and Arabic on papyrus as well as some Hieratic and more commonly, Demotic Egyptian.

The ancient subject matter recorded on papyrus can be extremely varied, and can include literature, religious texts, magical texts and even instrumental music. Religious topics recorded on Papyrus can include subjects related to ancient religions both in Egypt and outside, as well as biblical, including early Christian text. That biblical literature was originally written on papyrus (rather than on parchment) is evident from archaeological finds and textual analysis. In wadi Murbaat (near the Dead Sea) a papyrus has been found from the 7th century BC, and another one, dating from the 4th century BC, has been found above Jericho. These findings support the scholarly claim that the "books" mentioned in the Bible (Jer 36; 15,16; Ezek 2,8-3,3) were actually written on papyrus. Over 800 scrolls have been found in Qumran (The Dead Sea Scrolls), of which more than 60 (8%) are papyrus scrolls.

However, a large body of papyrus documentation exits on administrative matters such as official tax accounts, private documents from tax receipts to letters, court documents and others. In fact, these texts illustrate life in ancient Egypt under Greek and Roman rule in all its aspects, and the study of this body of information is called papyrology.

The first recorded purchase of papyri by European visitors to Egypt was in 1778. In that year a nameless dealer in antiquities bought from some peasants a papyrus roll of documents from the year 191 - 192 AD., and looked on while they set fire to fifty or so others simply to enjoy the aromatic smoke that was produced. Since that date an enormous quantity of inscribed papyri in all possible languages, of ages varying from a thousand to nearly five thousand years, have been recovered from the magic soil of the ancient seats of civilization in the Nile Valley. From about 1820 to 1840 the museums of Europe acquired quite a respectable number of papyri from Memphis and Letopolis in Middle Egypt, and from This, Panopolis, Thebes (modern Luxor), Hermonthis, Elephantine, and Syene (Aswan) in Upper Egypt. Not many scholars took any notice of them at first, and only a very few read and profited by them.

The next decisive event, apart from isolated finds, was the discovery of papyri in the province of El-Fayoum (Middle Egypt) in 1877. To the north of the capital, Medinet el-Fayoum, lay a number of mounds of rubbish and debris, marking the site of the ancient "City of Crocodiles," afterwards called "The City of the Arsinoïtes," and these now yielded up hundreds and  thousands of precious sheets and scraps. Since then there has been a rapid succession of big finds, which have not ceased even yet: we are still in a period of important discoveries.

The job of the papyrologist can be considerably difficult. By far, the majority of the some 50,000 papyri published since 1788 (out of an estimated 400,000 preserved in collections around the world) are very fragmentary. Hence, the work of a papyrologist not only involves deciphering, transcribing and editing this material, but also reconstructing very complex puzzles. Most fragments of literature have come from rolls of papyrus, which could extend up to some 35 feet in length.

For a while, papyrus actually disappeared from the Egyptian landscape after the invention of paper. The Egyptian placed an embargo on exporting papyrus at the end of the 7th century AD led the way to parchment, and later on to 'modern' paper, the successor to the papyrus. 'Ground' paper (the predecessor of modern paper) was invented in China in the second century AD, but reached western Asia only after the Muslim conquest of Turkistan in 751 Hence, Arabs introduced a process for making pulp paper, which they learned from Chinese prisoners. Though this new paper was less durable then papyrus, it was also easier and far less expensive to make. Gradually, the Egyptians abandoned the production of {Papyrus paper and neglected the cultivation of their papyrus plantations. Eventually, papyrus itself disappeared from the Egyptian landscape.

Papyrus making was not revived until around 1969. An Egyptian scientist named Dr. Hassan Ragab reintroduced the papyrus plant to Egypt from the Sudan and started a papyrus plantation near Cairo on Jacob Island. He also had to research the method of production. Unfortunately, the ancient Egyptians left little evidence about the manufacturing process. There are no extant texts or wall paintings and archaeologists have failed to uncover any manufacturing centers. Most of our knowledge about the actual manufacturing process is derived from its description in Pliny the elder's Natural History and modern experimentation. Dr. Ragab finally figured out how it was done, and now papyrus making is back in Egypt after a very long absence.

Tricks of The Trade:

Purchasing Fine Papyrus Artwork

Few tourists to Egypt probably leave the country without at least one papyrus painting. It is easy to carry onto airplanes, and relatively inexpensive to purchase. The problem is, do they really leave with true papyrus, or a cheep imitation? Will the paint hold up, or quickly flake off? There are several issues that people should understand when buying papyrus art in Egypt or elsewhere, and here, we attempt to examine what constitutes fine, quality papyrus art.

Thanks to modern technology, when I started school and needed to use paper, I simply went to the store and purchased some note books. It was cheap, but that is obviously not how things have always worked. Not until the Chinese invented pulp paper, and in their interaction with those people did the Arabs also learn the process, did paper become readily available. Though the art of writing was probably first invented in Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq), and later developed by the Egyptians in the 4th Century BC, initially a good portable medium was not available. The ancients began writing upon stones, bones, the barks of trees and textiles, but with the expanding practice of writing, more practical materials were needed. Thus, from the stalks of the papyrus plant that grew wild in marshy areas of the Nile, the Egyptians developed papyrus paper (see Historical Papyrus).

Papyrus was effectively an Egyptian monopoly and its manufacture was a guarded secret. Indeed, the papyrus plant became a symbol of Lower Egypt, and was regarded as so typically  Egyptian that it could be regarded as a metaphor for the entire country.

Under the best conditions, the stem of the Egyptian papyrus could reach the height of five meters and the thickness of about five centimeters. However, under more normal circumstances, the plants would yield stems of only modest thickness, which were not useful for making writing material. Therefore it was used for making many things, including baskets, ropes and boats, yet from about 3000 BC, its most important use was of course as a writing medium. The earliest surviving example is a blank papyrus roll found in the tomb of Hemaka, an official of the 1st Dynasty (2925-2775 BC) at Saqqara. The quality of manufacture was by this time already so fine that Egyptians must have been making papyrus rolls for some time.

However, with the invention of pulp paper, papyrus slowly disappeared from use, even in Egypt. Because it was no longer a viable commercial product, as farming came to the Nile Delta, its even disappeared from the Egyptian landscape.

Papyrus making was not revived until around 1969. At that time, an Egyptian scientist named Dr. Hassan Ragab reintroduced the papyrus plant to Egypt from the Sudan and started a papyrus plantation near Cairo on Jacob Island. He also had to research the method of production. Unfortunately, the ancient Egyptians left little evidence about the manufacturing process. There are no extant texts or wall paintings and archaeologists have failed to uncover any manufacturing centers. Most of our knowledge about the actual manufacturing process is derived from its description in Pliny the elder's Natural History and modern experimentation. Dr. Ragab finally figured out how it was done, and now papyrus making is back in Egypt after a very long absence. We should note that Dr. Hassan Ragab had a remarkable career with over 42 inventions credited to his name as an engineer. After World War II, he also served time in Washington, DC as Egypt's military attaché and later became the first Egyptian ambassador to China, with other ambassadorial posts to Italy and Yugoslavia.

Today, papyrus is mostly used for decorative art, and though most of it is sold to tourists, it is even somewhat popular in Egyptian homes. However, rarely do we find what might be termed "museum replica" papyrus. We might find an example of an early medical papyrus hanging on the walls of a doctor's office, but for the most part, the extant ancient papyri found in museums and specific papyrus collections is not very decorative or interesting in and of itself. Hence, modern papyri are usually adorned with more colorful subject mater.

Paintings on papyrus material vary considerably. Our personal favorites are accurately portrayed scenes, usually duplicating to a high degree the wall paintings from ancient tombs and temples, as well as from early Christian churches and monasteries when papyrus was still in use. However, paintings on papyrus may include more stylistic themes from ancient Egypt, and we can find examples of almost any subject mater, including modern art.

There are a number of quality considerations when purchasing papyrus art. Perhaps the two most important issues are the material and the quality of the art itself. By material, we refer to the fact that a considerable amount of "papyrus" purchased in Egypt is not papyrus at all. On the streets of Cairo such as in front of the Eyyptian Antiquities Museum and at other popular tourist attractions, much of the art sold as papyrus is actually made from the banana stalk. Other materials used to simulate papyrus include corn husks, potatoes, eggplant, carrot and a few other materials.

However, there are a few ways to distinguish real papyrus from these forgeries. True papyrus is usually heavier in weight, strong, difficult to tear and somewhat opaque (though certainly not always). There are a number of stores, for example, near the Egyptian museum that do sell true  papyrus and before purchasing a sample on the street, it might be advisable to visit one of these shops for comparison. The light colored papyrus has different colors or degrees of brown and one can see the veins clearly in the light. Unpainted sheets can be somewhat crunched though will retain their "memory" and thus return to a flat sheet. Of course, crushing painted papyrus is not a good idea because of the paint itself. Furthermore, reputable papyrus vendors stamp their merchandize with the store stamp to guarantee authenticity of the product. Obviously, one of the best means of making sure that true papyrus is purchased is to buy it from a reputable shop, as opposed to a street vendor.

During ancient times, there were certainly different levels of quality in papyrus paper. The best of the paper was made from the innermost material of the papyrus stalk. However, today most papyrus is of a similar grade, though there can be a few difference, and a number of different styles. In some papyrus manufacturing, the strips are placed alternating vertical and horizontal, while in others, one layer is all vertical and the next is all horizontal. Of these, the second method provides the smoother surface for painters.

What is more evident is the various styles of papyrus which are produced. Depending on the final process, some papyri may look very different than other papyri. When papyrus strips are soaked in water for about four to six days and pressed for an additional six days, the sheet will be brighter and the color will be light tan, though some parts of the strips will be darker in color. However, sometimes the strips are left in water for longer than a week, and as long as a month. Then it is pressed for as long as two months. This results in a sheet that takes on a dark brown solid color, which to some, appears more aged. This latter process will cause the edges of the papyri to have a hairy, or fringed appearance as a result of losing some of the natural glue in the strip and the tissue that connects the veins. While the dark papyrus looks perhaps more authentic and is actually a more expensive production technique, the light colored papyrus sheets are stronger. However, this may matter little if the intent is to frame and display the artwork.

In general, we can find all sizes of papyrus paintings. Workers cut the papyrus stalk to the length they wish for the sheet that will be produced, and since talks generally grow today as large as about four to five meters in height, this can produce a fairly large sheet of papyrus paper. They can put as many strips side by side as they please to produce the desired width. Their only limitation may be the size of their press. It must be noted, however, that many tomb and temple paintings are much larger than the more standard sizes of papyrus, and so some artists prefer to work with larger papyri sheets in order to capture the details found on the original artwork.

True papyrus is usually painted and not printed by machine, as one finds with fake papyrus, "Papyrus" made from other materials is frequently discernable by its cheep appearance, including flaking of the painted surface. Some artists paint true papyrus completely by hand using a light table to ease their job. Others, and especially with when painting on large sheets, may use a silk screen process for drawing the outlines and then finish the rest of the painting by hand. However, it has been mentioned (by one vendor during interviews for this article) that real papyrus may sometimes be printed using an inkjet color printer after smoothing the sheet very well.

Though very little if any true papyrus is machine printed, one can often tell the difference between machine and hand painted papyrus, which can also help distinguish true from fake papyrus. Vendors use printing machines for fast work, and apparently there is "bleeding" that occurs. Hence, with machine work, edges may overlap to some extent. With hand painted papyrus, the paint remains within the lines and does not overlap the outlines of the artwork as does machine printing.

Also, all hand painted papyrus is signed by the artist. There are even some artists that are very popular. One of the most famous was Dr. Besheer Abdel-Salam, who appears to have been a popular artist known to almost all reputable papyrus dealers. However, he died a few years ago. Others include an Egyptian named Khedr, who's work can be found in a number of papyrus galleries. Other well known artists include Adel Ghaboor, Abdel-Moniem Waheed, Naser, Adel Eawzy, Yaser Abdel-Moniem, Yehya Zakariya and Monsef. However, we should point out that in some cases, the work of these artists can be somewhat stylistic and may depart considerably from accurate reproduction of authentic pharaonic depictions.

Though real papyrus by nature can accept just about any kind of paint, most artists (and even machine processes) use gouache colors, which are frequently used by other designers and illustrators because of their outstanding brilliance, exceptionally smooth flow, great opacity and covering power. Furthermore, the color of the medium (papyrus) has little effect on this type of paint. For the color gold, the best artwork will employ gold-leaf, but others will utilize a metallic based paint.

The cost of "papyrus" artwork can vary considerably; almost infinitely. On the street in Cairo, cheap, normal size papyrus can be had for as little as a couple of dollars (or even less, if one visits the vendors in front of the Egyptian Antiquities Museum near closing time). From there, good true papyrus may range in price to several hundred dollars (USD) when purchasing work by artists such as Dr. Besheer Abdel-Salam or very large papyrus paintings.

Obviously, papyrus is very durable. Thousands of papyrus documents from ancient times may be found in collections today, and certainly this papyrus was not preserved over these many thousands of years under optimal conditions. This material is much, much more lasting than ordinary pulp paper and under fairly good conditions, the papyrus paper itself will not only outlast the purchaser, but probably his future family line. However, colors do fade so ideally papyrus artwork should be framed and for best result, placed behind museum quality glass that provides good protection from harmful UV rays which can cause discoloration of the paint. Glass products such as Tru Vue will not only protect the colors of the paint, but are also non-glare products used extensively in fine picture framing.